History of Constantine the Great
Head of the Colossus of Constantine, Capitoline Museums. Image: Wikipedia
History of Constantine the Great
The first “Christian” Emperor of Rome was Constantine I, also known as Constantine the Great, who ruled from AD 306 to 337. He ended the Empire-wide persecution of Christians and elevated the faith of Christianity in Rome.
Who was he, what did he do, why was he important to Imperial Rome and early Christianity, and was he himself a Christian?
Who Was Constantine?
Born in Serbia on February 27, probably in AD 272, to a Roman military officer named Flavius Constantius, who took the name of the Roman Emperor Diocletian, after his father ascended to the rank of caesar (regional ruler).
His lowborn mother, Helena, was reputedly credited with bringing to Rome, following a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, important relics. These included the True Cross and the Holy Stairs (Scala Sancta), from the Praetorium of Pontius Pilate in Jerusalem, where he condemned Jesus.
The stairs are now located across a narrow street from the ancient Archbasilica of St. John in Laterano (San Giovanni), as I describe in my article here. She was later canonized as Saint Helena. Her porphyry granite sarcophagus is in the Vatican Museum, as I describe here.
Historical Trivia
Constantine gave the residence of his second wife, Fausta, to the bishops of Rome as an episcopal residence, which it remained until 1308, succeeded by St. Peter’s Basillica in the Vatican. It was formerly the property of the patrician Lateranus family, possibly confiscated by Constantine
Some historians claim that Helena converted Constantine to Christianity during his youth; however, the contemporary church historian Eusebius reports that it was Constantine who converted her.
St Helena finding the True Cross. Image: Wikipedia
Constantine served in the Roman military under various emperors, including Diocletian, who had initiated an Empire-wide persecution of Christians, more severe than any previously. Constantine campaigned against the Persians in the East, as well as serving with his father in Britannia.
Constantine’s army declared him augustus (emperor) in York, England, following his father’s death. During the Civil Wars of the Tetrarchy, he was victorious over the other three emperors.
Battle of the Milvian Bridge, AD 312
One emperor he had to defeat was Maxentius, who had taken up residence in the city of Rome behind the Aurelian Walls, anticipating a siege. Outnumbering Constantine’s forces two to one, Maxentius faced his enemy on the battlefield with the River Tiber to his back. Constantine’s opposing army approached with an unfamiliar standard on their shields.
The Milvian Bridge (Ponte Milvio) over the River Tiber, north of Rome, where Constantine and Maxentius fought in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge. Image: Wikipedia
According to Constantine’s Christian advisor, Lactantius, in his work On the Deaths of the Persecutors:
“Constantine was directed in a dream to cause the heavenly sign to be delineated on the shields of his soldiers, and so to proceed to battle. He did as he had been commanded, and he marked on their shields the letter Χ, with a perpendicular line drawn through it and turned round thus at the top, being the cipher of Christ. Having this sign (☧) [of Chi-Rho], his troops stood to arms.”
The historian Eusebius describes a vision Constantine had while marching in the noon-day sun:
“he saw with his own eyes the trophy of a cross of light in the heavens, above the sun, and bearing the inscription, In Hoc Signo Vinces (“In this sign thou shalt conquer”).”
Silver medallion of 315; Constantine with a chi-rho symbol as the crest of his helmet. Image: Wikipedia
Constantine sent forth his cavalry and infantry, pushing Maxentius’ forces into the River Tiber, where they were slaughtered and drowned.
Edict of Milan, AD 313
In 313, Constantine met with Licinius, his fellow emperor and the husband of his half-sister Constantia, and together they agreed to what is now known as the Edict of Milan, which officially granted complete tolerance to Christianity.
This did not make Christianity the “official religion” of Rome, at least in Constantinople. Instead, it transformed Christianity into a religio licita, a “legal religion,” granting Christians the restoration of all property seized during Diocletian’s persecution and the return of all confiscated churches.
It was not until the reign of the Emperor Theodosius I, around 380, that Christianity became the official religion of Rome, or at least its capital, Constantinople.
Was Constantine a Christian?
This is a topic that has been much debated among historians. He certainly did much to promote Christianity after its earlier persecution. Yet, he seemed to continue to worship the “Unconquerable Sun.” He was unaware of any mutual exclusiveness between Christianity and solar monotheism, the most popular form of contemporary paganism.
The Arch of Constantine in Rome was commissioned, it is reported, by the Roman Senate to honor his defeat of Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge. This arch features a medallion on the eastern side depicting the Sun rising, as I describe in my article here.
Arch of Constantine, viewed from the Colosseum, looking southwest to Palatine Hill. Image: Wikipedia
There is also an inscription about Constantine, which includes the words instinctu divinitatis (“inspired by the divine”). Is this in reference to his revelation from God at the Milvian Bridge? The Chi-Rho symbol appears on his coins from 315. Yet his official documents and coins still displayed the Sun god, until at least 324.
Eusebius, in his Ecclesiastical History, informs us that Constantine was baptized as a Christian at least a month before his death. This was not unusual at this time, especially for rulers, who were required to torture and execute criminals. The thinking was that the waters of baptism, performed toward the end of their lives, would wash away their sins.
Nevertheless, in 321, Constantine closed law courts “on the venerable day of the sun [Sunday],” except for the purpose of freeing slaves, and decreased Sunday labor except where necessary on farms. An inscription was found indicating that he changed the old custom of working for seven days and holding a market day every eighth, directing farmers instead to hold their market day each Sunday. So, Sunday was not only the day when Christians met for worship to commemorate the day Christ rose from the dead, but it was also a day of Roman rest.
Although Licinius had previously agreed with him on the Edict of Milan, Licinius remained a pagan and harassed Christians near the Armenian frontier, prohibiting church assemblies and councils. Constantine utilized this aggression to crusade against Licinius, resulting in a victory on the Bosphorus in September 324, which left Constantine as the sole ruler of Rome in both the West and the East.
It can be agreed that he was at least a Christian militarily. He believed he was victorious because he conquered under the sign of Christ. What he believed in his heart is known only to him and God.
Founding of Constantinople, AD 324
The map of Constantinople (1422) by Florentine cartographer Cristoforo Buondelmonti[44] is the oldest surviving map of the city, and the only one that predates the Turkish conquest of the city in 1453. Image: Wikipedia
In the more civilized East, he acted upon a divinely granted dream to build a new imperial residence in the magnificent strategic city of Byzantium, which was renamed New Rome and called Constantinople (City of Constantine) in his honor.
Constantine ordered the construction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, possibly at the direction of his mother, Helena, who had discovered the location as the site claimed to be the crucifixion and tomb of Jesus in Jerusalem and was deemed the holiest place in Christendom. I discuss the church in my article on Jerusalem here.
Convoking the First Council of Nicaea
Constantine regarded himself as a Christian whose imperial duty was to keep the church unified. He was troubled by the disunity of the Christian faith, both in the observance of Easter and over a divisive debate concerning the divinity of Christ.
Icon from the Mégalo Metéoron Monastery in Greece, representing the First Ecumenical Council of Nikea, 325 A.D., with the condemned Arius. Image: Wikipedia
He convoked the first ecumenical Church Council at nearby Nicaea. I’ll discuss the details of that in my next article.
Bill Petro, your friendly neighborhood historian
billpetro.com
